IOSR-JAP   Volume-10 ~ Issue-2 ~ March-April 2018

ABSTRACT: The origin of matter remains one of the great mysteries in physics. During the last two decades, cosmology has become a precision observational science thanks (in part) to the incredible number of experiments performed to better understand the composition of the universe. The large amount of data accumulated strongly indicates that the bulk of the universe's matter is in the form of nonbaryonic matter that does not interact electromagnetically. Combined evidence from the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters confirms that most of the mass in the universe is not composed of any known form of matter. Measurements of the cosmic microwave background, big bang nucleosynthesis and many other experiments indicate that ∼ 80% of the matter in the universe is dark, non-relativistic and cold. The dark matter resides in the holes surrounding galaxies, galaxy clusters and other large-scale structures.

[1]. Overbye, Dennis (20 February 2017). "Cosmos Controversy: The Universe Is Expanding, but How Fast?". New York Times. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
[2]. "NASA's Hubble Rules Out One Alternative to Dark Energy". NASA. 2011-03-14. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
[3]. Astronomers reported their measurement in a paper published in the December 2000 issue of Nature titled The microwave background temperature at the redshift of 2.33771which can be read here [2]. A press release from the European Southern Observatory explains the findings to the public.
[4]. The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011
[5]. Hubble, Edwin (1937). "Red-shifts and the distribution of nebulæ". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 97: Bibcode:1937MNRAS..97..506H. doi:10.1093/mnr as/97.7.506

ABSTRACT: Calcium tartrate crystals are renowned for its ferroelectric nature. To engineer its properties, calcium levo-tartrate tetrahydrate (CLTT) crystals are doped by Mn++ and Cu++. Pure and doped CLTT crystals are grown by the gel method. The Vickers micro-indentation hardness tests are carried out at various applied loads to study the mechanical properties of pure and doped CLTT crystals. As the load increases the values of Vickers micro-hardness decreases. The doped crystals are found to be softer than the pure CLTT crystals. The work hardening coefficient and the standard hardness values are found to be less in Mn++ doped CLTT crystals than the Cu++ doped CLTT crystals. The yield stress and the first order elastic stiffness constant values are calculated from the micro-hardness values for pure and doped crystals. The Hays and Kendall's approach and Proportional Specimen Resistance (PSR) model are applied for pure and doped CLTT crystals. The effect of doping of Mn++ and Cu++ on the micro-hardness properties of the CLTT crystals is studied and explained.

Keywords: Vickers micro-hardness, Hays and Kendall's law, Proportional Specimen Resistance (PSR) Model

[1]. H. B. Gon, J.Cryst. Growth., 102, 1990, 501.
[2]. S. R. Suthar and M. J. Joshi, Cryst. Res. Technol., 41, 2006, 664.
[3]. S. R. Suthar, S. J. Joshi, B. B. Parekh and M. J. Joshi,, Indian J. Pure and Appl. Phys., 45, 2007, 52.
[4]. A. F. Mohrnheim, Micro hardness testing and Hardness numbers in Interpretive Techniques for Micro-structural Analysis (Springer 1977).
[5]. H. E. Boyer, Hardness testing (ASM Publication 1987).

ABSTRACT: Wu's Spacetime Field Equation is derived from Yangton and Yington Theory based on Wu's Unit Length lyy (the diameter of Yangton and Yington Circulating Pairs) and Wu's Unit Time tyy (the period of Yangton and Yington Circulating Pairs). Wu's Unit Length and Wu's Unit Time are correlated to each other by Wu's Spacetime Theory. They are also dependent on the gravitational field and the aging of the universe. Furthermore, instead of being a constant, the speed of light C is a function of Wu's Unit Length lyy, which can increase the acceleration (the curvature of Spacetime) to form a deep continuum in Spacetime along the edge of a spherical mass (or black hole). As a result, the existence of black hole can be interpreted by Wu's Spacetime Field Equation. Also, the expansion of the universe can be explained by Wu's Spacetime Shrinkage Theory and Wu's Spacetime Reverse Expansion Theory without the modification of Wu's Spacetime Field Equation with Einstein's Cosmological Constant and dark energy.

Keywords: General Relativity. Einstein's Field Equations, Yangton and Yington, Wu's Pairs, Spacetime, Spacetime Shrinkage, Universe Expansion, Redshift, Black Hole, Dark Energy, Cosmological Constant.

[1]. Edward. T. H. Wu (2017). "My Universe – A Theory of Yangton and Yington Pairs". Amazon.com. ISBN-13: 978-1520923000 and ISBN-10: 1520923007.
[2]. Edward T. H. Wu. "Time, Space, Gravity and Spacetime Based on Yangton & Yington Theory, and Spacetime Shrinkage Versus Universe Expansion". American Journal of Modern Physics. Vol. 5, No. 4, 2016, pp. 58-64. doi: 10.11648/j.ajmp.20160504.13.
[3]. Catoni, F.; et al. (2008). Mathematics of Minkowski Space. Frontiers in Mathematics. Basel: Birkhauser Verlag. doi: 10.1007/978-3-7643-8614-6. ISBN 978-3-7643-8613-9. ISSN1660-8046.
[4]. Einstein A. (1916), Relativity: The Special and General Theory (Translation 1920), New York: H. Holt and Company.
[5]. Carroll, Sean (2004). Spacetime and Geometry – An Introduction to General Relativity. pp. 151–159. ISBN 0-8053-8732-3.